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- Historical origins of Linux distributions
- Today's major Linux distribution families
- Which Linux distribution to choose?
A Linux distribution (often abbreviated "distro") is a complete operating system built from the Linux kernel (and often with elements of GNU), plus a coherent set of software, libraries, initialization scripts and management tools, to form a ready-to-use environment. A Linux distribution is therefore not limited to the kernel, but represents a comprehensive integration of the software components needed to run and use a computer (or any other computing device).
Each Linux distribution includes :
- the Linux kernel, which communicates with the hardware and manages system resources (CPU, memory, disks, etc.)
- a bootloader, such as GRUB, to boot the system
- an initialization system that allows services to be launched at boot time: systemd, OpenRC, SysV init, or runit depending on the distribution's philosophical choices
- a package management system, which lets you install, update and remove software. The most common are APT (Debian, Ubuntu), RPM/DNF (Fedora, RHEL), Pacman (Arch), Zypper (openSUSE) or APK (Alpine)
- online software repositories, which centralize validated versions of available applications
- a set of system tools (shell, editors, compilers, network interfaces, etc.) and often a preconfigured desktop environment (GNOME, KDE Plasma, XFCE, etc.)
- configuration scripts, documentation and, in some cases, support services
This assembly work is specific to each distribution, which selects its components according to its philosophy (simplicity, lightness, security, stability, innovation, etc.), its target audiences (beginners, businesses, servers, workstations, embedded machines, ec.) and its development cycle (rolling release or stable). For example, Arch Linux focuses on structural simplicity and technical transparency, while Ubuntu concentrates on user experience and mainstream compatibility (but we'll come back to this in the final section of this chapter).
→ Note: A rolling release distribution integrates the latest software versions as soon as they become available, resulting in a constantly up-to-date but potentially less stable system. Conversely, a stable distribution sends software versions when a major version is released, guaranteeing greater reliability at the expense of novelty.
The existence of distributions enables users to benefit from a ready-to-use Linux system, without having to manually rebuild each software component. This represents a huge gain in terms of time, consistency and security. Also, in terms of architecture, distributions take advantage of the hardware abstraction layer provided by the Linux kernel. This layer enables the operating system to be compatible with a wide range of different hardware, without the need to adapt software to each specific component. This modularity also makes it easy to modify or replace system components without having to rebuild the whole system.
Understanding the differences between Linux distributions is therefore an important step in choosing the right one for your needs, skills and requirements. That's what we'll be looking at in this chapter.
Historical origins of Linux distributions
The first Linux distributions appeared in the immediate wake of Linus Torvalds' publication of the Linux kernel in September 1991. At the time, Linux was just a kernel: to obtain a complete system, users had to manually assemble the various components required (often taken from the GNU project), which required a high level of technical expertise. Installing the system means compiling the kernel yourself, configuring partitions, choosing tools, managing software dependencies... In short, a complex process, reserved for the initiated.
To make Linux more accessible, several projects are rapidly emerging, with the idea of assembling a ready-to-use system from the Linux kernel and a coherent set of software tools.
These early efforts marked the birth of Linux distributions:
- February 1992: MCC Interim Linux
Developed at the University of Manchester, MCC Interim Linux is considered the very first Linux distribution. Its aim is to simplify system installation on a standard PC. It comes in the form of a few floppy disks and contains a minimal set of tools to get Linux up and running quickly.
- May 1992: Softlanding Linux System (SLS)
The SLS distribution is the very first to offer a more complete installation with a windowing system (X Window), shell, compiler and other preconfigured tools. Its aim is to provide a Unix-like system that can be used by the general public.
In its early days, SLS was a great success, but users soon voiced criticism of its instability and certain maintenance decisions. This prompted several developers to launch parallel projects, either to improve SLS or to replace it. Thus began the great tree of Linux distributions and their segmentation into families.
SLS no longer exists. Its last known version dates back to late 1994.
- July 1993: Slackware
Patrick Volkerding launched Slackware somewhat by accident, fixing and improving bugs in SLS as part of a school project at Minnesota State University. Through numerous modifications and optimizations, his modified version of SLS eventually became a truly independent Linux distribution, likely to appeal to the public disappointed by SLS's limitations. After obtaining the approval of his university, he published the first version of his distribution under the name Slackware on July 17, 1993.
Slackware quickly became the most widely used Linux distribution in the 1990s. Its simple architecture, configuration shell scripts, respect for Unix standards and lack of abstraction made it a benchmark for advanced users looking for a minimalist, transparent system.
Slackware is still maintained today, making it the oldest Linux distribution still in use. It is also at the origin of numerous derivative distributions, forming the first large family of Linux distributions: Slackware.
- August 1993: Debian
Around the same time, Ian Murdock launched the Debian distribution, in a spirit very different from the practices of the time, notably those embodied by distributions like SLS, often maintained by a single person. Murdock conceived Debian as a structured community project, developed in an open way, in the spirit of free software and the GNU project. Unlike many other Linux distributions, Debian is a non-commercial distribution.
Ian Murdock. Source: Ilya Schurov CC BY-SA 2.0.
From a technical point of view, Debian distinguished itself from the outset by the quality of its packaging system, the traceability of updates, and above all by the introduction of a high-performance package manager, dpkg, quickly supplemented by APT in 1998, which enables automated and reliable management of software dependencies.
Debian 1.3 (1997). Source: The Linux Distribution Archive
Early on, the project formalized its ethical commitments with the publication of the Debian Social Contract and the Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG), to establish a clear charter on code freedom and transparency. Sponsored for a time by the Free Software Foundation, Debian then became legally independent by founding the non-profit organization Software in the Public Interest (SPI) in 1997.
Debian thus became one of the technical and ideological pillars of the GNU/Linux world, a foundation from which dozens of major distributions were born, including Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Kali Linux and Raspberry Pi OS.
- 1994: Red Hat Linux
Marc Ewing published the first version of Red Hat Linux in 1994. This marked the birth of a distribution that would play a central role in the professionalization of Linux. Fascinated by the Unix universe, Ewing created a structured, accessible version of Linux, incorporating an important tool: the Red Hat Package Manager (RPM), which standardized the format of software packages and facilitated their installation, updating and removal, particularly in professional environments. This format would become a widely adopted standard.
In 1995, Bob Young, founder of the AAC Corporation specializing in Linux software accessories, bought out Marc Ewing's company. The merger of the two entities gave birth to Red Hat Software. Together, they developed an original business model: the distribution of open-source software coupled with support and certification services for businesses. This business model became a benchmark, and can be found in many of the projects in the Bitcoin ecosystem.
Bob Young and Marc Ewing. Photographer: Candice C Cusic/AP
In 2003, Red Hat made a strategic split: the community branch became Fedora, an innovation laboratory with a rapid development cycle, while the commercial branch was transformed into Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), a certified, stable, long-term distribution designed for business-critical infrastructures. Since then, Fedora has been used as a testbed for technologies that will later be more rigorously integrated into RHEL. With this organization, Red Hat has succeeded in reconciling community agility and industrial rigor.
These pioneering distributions established today's major Linux families, each of which has developed its own technical and philosophical approach.
Today's major Linux distribution families
The Debian family
This family is built around the APT package manager and the
.deb package format. Debian stands out for its rigorous approach to free software and its robust dependency management system.Ubuntu, derived directly from Debian, popularizes Linux through its ease of installation and use. Ubuntu has many official variants, such as Kubuntu (KDE environment) and Xubuntu (XFCE). Other important Debian-based distributions are Linux Mint (also derived from Ubuntu), Kali Linux (computer security), and Raspberry Pi OS for Raspberry Pi microcomputers.
It's this family that we'll be concentrating on next, as it brings together some of the most consistent and popular Linux distributions for use on personal computers.
The Red Hat family
Centered around the RPM format (Red Hat Package Manager), this family therefore includes Fedora, the innovative community distribution serving as the technical basis for Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), a commercial distribution aimed at enterprises and renowned for its long-term stability.
Several major distributions are directly derived from RHEL, with the aim of offering free and compatible alternatives, without the expense of commercial support. Among them, CentOS long held an important place as a community clone of RHEL, until Red Hat changed its nature in 2020 to CentOS Stream, an intermediate version between Fedora and RHEL. This decision led to the creation of new forks such as AlmaLinux and Rocky Linux.
Other important distributions from this family include Oracle Linux, with specific optimizations for cloud environments, and ClearOS, an SMB-oriented distribution with turnkey server and firewall features.
The Arch Linux family
The Arch Linux family is distinguished by a philosophy radically opposed to that of off-the-shelf distributions. They are minimalist, and designed according to the "KISS" ("Keep It Simple, Stupid") principle. Arch Linux provides a basic, uncluttered system, which the user has to build manually according to his or her needs.
This approach is based on a rolling release model, where packages are updated continuously, without the need to reinstall the system with each major release. The Pacman package manager is fast and lightweight, making it easy to install and update software, and the AUR (Arch User Repository), a community repository, provides access to a vast array of unofficial and development packages.
Arch Linux is aimed above all at advanced users who want total control over their environment, while accepting a certain complexity in installation and maintenance. This technical requirement has led to the emergence of several derivative distributions aimed at democratizing its use.
The best-known is Manjaro, which retains Arch's technical base while offering simplified installation, preconfigured desktop environments and a slightly delayed release cycle to stabilize updates.
The Slackware family
Slackware remains faithful to historic Unix principles, with an emphasis on simplicity, transparency and stability. Unlike modern distributions that automate software management, Slackware relies on a
.tgz package system with no automatic dependency resolution, requiring a good knowledge of its environment and software components.This minimalist approach, combined with high stability, makes Slackware a distribution favored by experienced users or Unix purists, especially in contexts where predictability and control are important (servers, embedded systems, mission-critical environments, etc.).
Slackware has spawned a number of derivative distributions, some of which seek to modernize its use while retaining its spirit: Salix, Porteus, Slackel...
Despite a smaller community than Debian or Red Hat, the Slackware family remains a historical and technical reference in the GNU/Linux universe.
The Gentoo family
An offshoot of the Enoch Linux project created in 1999, Gentoo was created by Daniel Robbins with the aim of designing a highly customizable distribution, with no precompiled binaries, and optimized for the user's hardware. Renamed Gentoo (after the Papuan penguin, one of the fastest penguins), the distribution is based on compiling packages from source, enabling very fine-tuned optimizations thanks to the use of Portage, a package management system inspired by BSD ports. Gentoo is aimed at experienced users looking for performance, control and lightness, at the price of longer installation and maintenance times.
Several derivatives have been created to extend its use: Funtoo, Redcore Linux (Sabayon), Calculate Linux, Pentoo, etc.
Finally, ChromeOS, the operating system developed by Google for its Chromebooks, was originally derived from Gentoo, although it has since departed from it considerably.
To find out more about the Linux distribution families and visualize the branches of each, I recommend you consult this excellent and very comprehensive diagram on Wikimedia: Linux Distribution Timeline.
Which Linux distribution to choose?
The choice of a Linux distribution depends on your specific needs, your technical level and your intended use. Here's a handy selection of the most widely used or specialized distributions, with their main advantages and disadvantages.
General and accessible distribution
- Ubuntu:
Developed by Canonical and launched in 2004, Ubuntu is one of the world's most popular distributions. Based on Debian, it offers a regular release cycle, with stable LTS (Long Term Support) versions maintained for five years. Ubuntu stands out for its excellent hardware compatibility, large community and abundant documentation, making it a very safe choice for beginners. In fact, we'll be using Ubuntu for the rest of the SCU202 training course, as it's a solid entry point into the world of GNU/Linux. Ubuntu integrates the GNOME desktop environment by default, with a few specific adjustments.
- Linux Mint:
Launched in 2006, Linux Mint is a distribution derived from Ubuntu, designed to offer a more intuitive alternative, closer to the ergonomics of Windows. It offers several desktop environments, including Cinnamon, a Fork of GNOME designed specifically by the Mint team, which provides a clear, classic and immediately familiar interface.
Mint stands out for its simplicity, the presence by default of multimedia codecs and a well-designed update tool. On the other hand, it relies heavily on Ubuntu's infrastructure, making it dependent on Ubuntu's technical choices (particularly at kernel and repository level). Mint is particularly well-suited to non-technical users, or those who want a ready-to-use system that doesn't require too much learning.
- Zorin OS:
Created in 2008 by an Irish team, Zorin OS explicitly targets Windows and macOS users looking for a smooth transition to Linux. It is based on Ubuntu LTS and offers a customized interface that can mimic Windows or macOS according to preference.
Installation is smooth, essential software is pre-installed, and the "Lite" version lets you run the system on older machines. Some editions, such as "Pro", are not free (around €50), but the free version is still fully functional. Zorin OS is a good choice for those looking for a visually familiar, well-integrated environment with no manual configuration.
- elementary OS:
Launched in 2011, elementary OS is an Ubuntu-based distribution that focuses above all on the design and consistency of Interface. Its Pantheon desktop environment, inspired by macOS, is minimalist, elegant and fluid. However, the system remains less customizable than other distributions, and some advanced users may feel limited by Interface's choices and its deliberately locked-down structure. It is well suited to aesthetically sensitive users looking for a simple, coherent system for everyday use.
- Pop!OS:
Developed by the American company System76, Pop!OS is also based on Ubuntu. It targets both desktop users and developers, with a modified interface GNOME (and recently an in-house environment called COSMIC). Pop!OS integrates optimizations for NVIDIA GPUs by default, and features a mosaic window management mode. The system remains simple to use, but also offers advanced out-of-the-box functionalities. It is aimed at intermediate users, students or professionals who want an efficient system without having to configure their environment by hand.
Source: By Allman - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0.
Intermediate and high-performance distributions
- Fedora (Workstation or KDE Plasma):
Fedora is a Red Hat-backed distribution, oriented towards the latest technologies (Wayland, PipeWire, Flatpak...). It uses the RPM format and the
dnf package manager. Its rapid release cycle means that your system is always up to date, but you'll need to keep up with regular updates. It's an ideal distribution for developers or technical users looking for a modern system.
- openSUSE (Tumbleweed or Leap):
openSUSE is available as a rolling release or stable distribution. It features the YaST tool for system configuration, and allows versatile use with several graphical environments. It requires a little more experience, but remains robust for everyday use.
- Debian:
Debian exists in several branches, including Stable (very reliable, but older software) and Testing (more up-to-date, but slightly less proven). It uses
apt and is known for its rigor, free philosophy and high compatibility. Debian is a good choice for users looking for stability, system administrators...
- Manjaro:
Based on Arch, Manjaro makes Arch Linux accessible. This distribution offers graphical installation, in-house tools and good hardware support. Updates are deferred for greater stability. Manjaro is suitable for intermediate users looking for a modern Arch Linux distribution, without having to configure everything manually.
- Arch Linux:
Arch Linux is a minimalist, continuously updatable distribution, delivered without an interface or superfluous software. It requires manual installation, but offers total control and excellent documentation (Arch Wiki). This distribution is recommended for advanced users who want to master everything.
Specialized distribution
- Kali Linux:
Kali Linux is a Debian-based distribution designed for penetration testing and security auditing. It includes hundreds of pentest tools. This distribution is not really suitable as a main system for everyday use.
- Parrot OS:
Parrot OS is also derived from Debian. It offers an environment for pentesting, offensive security and privacy protection. More versatile than Kali, this distribution is also suitable for light daily use, with pre-integrated security tools.
- Tails:
Tails is a Debian-based, privacy-focused live distribution. Everything passes through the Tor network, and nothing is stored between user sessions. It's an ideal distribution for sensitive one-off uses (journalism, activism, seed Bitcoin generation...).
→ Note: A live distribution is a Linux operating system that can be used directly from a USB stick or CD, without installation on the hard disk.
- Qubes OS:
Qubes OS is based on Fedora and uses the Xen virtualization system to compartmentalize usage. Each application runs in an isolated virtual machine. It's a highly secure architecture, but resource-intensive and rather difficult to get to grips with.
- BlackArch:
BlackArch is a pentest-oriented extension to Arch Linux (like Kali on Debian). It provides over 2800 security tools. It's a very complete distribution, but reserved for advanced users already familiar with the Arch universe, and who need these specialized tools (security researchers, pentesters...).
- PureOS:
PureOS is a Debian-derived distribution developed by Purism, totally free (FSF approval). It focuses on privacy, with free software only and a total absence of proprietary blobs.
- Raspberry Pi OS:
Raspberry Pi OS (formerly Raspbian) is a distribution optimized for Raspberry Pi microcomputers. It is based on Debian, with packages recompiled for the ARM architecture. It can be used for educational projects, electronic testing or small personal servers.
- Whonix:
Whonix combines Debian with the Tor network in a two-VM architecture (gateway + workstation). It's a security-oriented distribution, but dependent on virtualization. Recommended for those who really need privacy.
This panorama gives you an overview of the current Linux distribution ecosystem, enabling you to select the distribution best suited to your technical profile and objectives.
In the next chapter of SCU202, we'll take a closer look at the practical Linux environment, starting with the graphical environments that form the basis of your day-to-day interactions with the system.
Quiz
Quiz1/5
scu2022.3
Which distribution family uses the RPM package manager?